Diesel Fuel

A 40% premium on diesel fuel?! What happened?

A Volkswagen Rabbit which sounded like a farm tractor was never something I found attractive. However, during the oil price gyrations of the 1970s and 1980s, a number of people did choose diesel passenger vehicles because the fuel was 10-20% cheaper and diesel engines were significantly more fuel efficient than those powered by gasoline. 

Elsewhere, the 1970s and 1980s were characterized by the same old domestic North American products, showing little re-engineering or innovation. Tariff barriers often helped ensure they were made in this country or on this continent. They were relatively expensive. Electronics?: a cathode ray tube TV (maybe colour), a stereo for your 'records', a VCR. An audio cassette player in the car!

Welcome to the 2020s! 

Diesel is more of a globally-traded and -priced commodity today. With this blog's favourite Strait blocked, Persian Gulf crude oil is not getting to European refineries ... but our refined diesel fuel is. I saw a Sky News (UK) story today with a graph showing that Canada has the largest diesel fuel reserves in the world. I guess 'had' would be more accurate. 

Since 2000, there has been explosive innovation in new products. Twenty years ago, we could not have imagined all the changes which have taken place - both the new products and the changes they have caused in our societies. 

And now, the whole economy of the "globalized world" runs on diesel - from the trucks moving the shipping containers to the docks of China, Vietnam, Japan, South Korea and Taiwan ... up to and including the wide assortment of courier trucks racing up and down our street every single weekday ... and now on weekends.

And the Europeans have perfected clean diesel automobiles! These are not your father's Volkswagens!

With the US military on the move in recent months, 'middle distillates' diesel and jet fuel are in greater demand than usual. 

Farmers are planting - creating the usual seasonal demand on diesel ... and they are not happy about the price changes.

And if your experience and knowledge-based hunch is that the higher diesel fuel demand will continue or increase ... petroleum financial derivatives, or a loaded petroleum tanker slow-steaming or loitering between here and Europe or Asia ... is even more of a sure thing than a White House insider pre-Tweet bet on a prediction market. 

*  *  *

Diesel - How It Began

https://archive.org/details/11650204bsb/page/n4/mode/1up

If you were to copy and paste the link above, you could read Rudolf Diesel's original treatise. 

Warning: lots of German ... even more math!

*  *  *

screencap from: Rudolf Diesel, Pioneer of the Age of Power; Nitske & Wilson; 1965; U of Oklahoma Press. archive.org 

*  *  *

screencap from: Diesel, Technology and Society in Industrial Germany; Donald E Thomas Jr; 1987; U of Alabama Press. archive.org

Diesel's patent from the Kaiser. 

M-A-N is the abbreviation of Maschinenfabrik Augsburg Nürnberg. 

It will appear again below.

*  *  *

from: Iron Horse to Diesel; Paul Snow; 1961; Whitman.

From a childhood storybook, came this image. I love the artist's flying cogwheels. I believe there were two motor explosions in different settings. One was fuelling with ammonia, the other was using a powdered coal/water slurry. 

During my research, I was reminded that General Electric was experimenting with a powdered coal fuel for a diesel-electric prototype in 1990 ... but there was a note that railroads would have to indicate an interest in the technology for the development to continue. 

*  *  *

screencap from: Rudolf Diesel, Pioneer of the Age of Power; Nitske & Wilson; 1965; U of Oklahoma Press. archive.org

*  *  *

The new fields of aviation and diesel power must have set records for the 'short elapsed time' between the invention of a technology, and its application in war-fighting. 

Elsewhere on this blog, you'll find that a recent Rudolf Diesel biographer speculated that his apparent nighttime English Channel ferry suicide was a cover orchestrated by the British to spirit him off to Montreal. Overnight, the Vickers shipyard there was turned into a high-security facility with a complete change of personnel. The theory is that the multi-lingual, well-travelled Diesel was 'an expert' brought in to apply Diesel's latest technologies to the Royal Navy submarines being built there.

Meanwhile ...

from: Die Höllenmaschine Im U-Boot; Kapitän Herbert Sauer; 1928; August Scherl. archive.org

Top: In the oil engine room of a U-boat in front of the main switch and the engine telegraph.

Bottom: In the diving control center, forward port side. High-pressure compressed air distribution system. In the center of it, the base of the central periscope with eyepiece. Central control station with repeater gyrocompass. Top left, engine telegraph. On the right, under the clock, the quick-venting handwheels of the forward ballast tanks.

*  *  *

from: Geology of Petroleum; William Harvey Emmons; 1921; McGraw-Hill.

At one point, Ontario was Canada's premier petroleum producing province.

The tar/bitumen/oil ... sands are the source of the heavy oil which facilitates the production of large quantities of diesel fuel.

*  *  *

The 1930s, United States ...

There was enough interest in diesel engines in the late 1920s and all through the 1930s, that a magazine existed to write about all the different applications in which the technology could be used. The advertisements are particularly good at depicting this potential. 

Notice the United Fruit Company motive power, pulling what looks like sugar cane. There is a good chance this operation was in Cuba. Unlike the many steam locomotives already present on Cuban railways, these light diesels were able to operate with less maintenance. They didn't have the thirst for water of the steam engines. They were also less likely to emit sparks which could set fire to the dried cane as it stood in the fields.

from: Diesel Progress magazine; June 1935; Diesel Engines Inc. archive.org

*  *  *

The gimmicky, art-deco, streamlined trainsets rode like maintenance-of-way speeder trailers but they spurred on many technological changes.

from: Diesel Progress magazine; June 1935; Diesel Engines Inc. archive.org

*  *  *

Coming to German Cinemas in 1942 ...

from: https://archive.org/details/diesel0000illu/mode/1up

The text-heavy side of this November 1942 German leaflet concludes: 

"A man and a fighter triumphed. And with him, his idea, his work, which changed the face of the global economy."

... Probably the 'Reichsminister für Volksaufklärung und Propaganda' did not subscribe to the theory 

that Rudolf Diesel disappeared in order to build Royal Navy submarines in Montreal. 

I've watched parts of this movie - it's on YouTube.

The directing is a little heavy-handed ...

*  *  *

1950 - General Motors Booklet

from: Diesel the Modern Power; Ralph A Richardson; 1950; General Motors. 

from: Diesel the Modern Power; Ralph A Richardson; 1950; General Motors.

from: Diesel the Modern Power; Ralph A Richardson; 1950; General Motors.

To make interpretation a little easier ... the three little rocker arms above the cylinder show you when the valves and the injector are doing something. 

The two-cycle innovation is 'scavenging'. Instead of using a piston cycle just to push the exhaust gases out ... an attached blower clears them and replaces them with fresh air at the same time. Consequently, every 'downward' piston movement is a power stroke. 

These opposed-piston engines were even more efficient ...

Canadian Locomotive Co, CPR DRS-16 Operator's Manual 1957

but, as adapted space-saving marine/submarine engines, 

they were more complicated, too different, and too troublesome in the long run.

*  *  *

From a 1957 Textbook on Petroleum ...

from: Petroleum, Prehistoric to Petrochemicals; GA Purdy; 1957; Copp Clark. 

*  *  *

A Transport Canada Railway Locomotive Document from 2001

(a quarter of a century ago)

This material will not be on the proverbial test. 

Perhaps some readers may be interested in how some of these older units compare.

This publication says this data comes from AAR testing.

IG is Imperial Gallon

MM is millions

NOx and SOx are oxides of nitrogen and sulphur.

HC - hydrocarbons, unburned 'oil'

PM is probably PM 2.5, the nasty little bits of soot that can pass from the lungs into the bloodstream.

from: Diesel Fuel Quality and Locomotive Emissions in Canada; Robert Dunn; 2001; Transport Canada. archive.org

I believe that Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (bsfc) is a way of expressing fuel efficiency. It is more complicated that the 'best' fuel efficiency ... because it factors in cycles of performance under different conditions. The lower bsfc numbers indicate a more efficient engine.

A 'brake dynamometer' attaches to a crankshaft and applies different measured braking (i.e. resistance) forces on it to simulate the various loads under which the engine works.

While the newer units don't seem to offer significantly better efficiency on a 1:1 basis ... the text reminds us that they provide more power per unit and that they burn the fuel with less pollution.

from: Diesel Fuel Quality and Locomotive Emissions in Canada; Robert Dunn; 2001; Transport Canada.

*  *  *

Diesel Engines in Ships

When we get to the use of 'diesel' in large modern ocean ships such as tankers and containerships, there is not one single type of fuel which is burned. Ships carry multiple fuel tanks to allow for cost-effective operation or for low-pollution operation.

Since 2020, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) has required that all ships (unless using scrubbers) must carry fuel oil with no more than 0.50% sulphur content (mass/mass). In specific Emission Control Areas (ECA) fuel with no greater than 0.10% sulphur content can be used. Effective March 2027, the Canadian Arctic and Norwegian Sea become ECAs with the 0.10% sulphur regulation becoming effective.

The text below revisits my 1957 petroleum textbook. The unrefined petroleum is still the same today. The processes for refining it are more complex, so I sometimes like to start with the basic explanation of what they did 75 years ago in simpler times. 

The last paragraph is still applicable. The ship owner is not going to allow the ship's engineers to put just any kind of fuel in a marine diesel engine that costs millions of dollars. 

from: Petroleum, Prehistoric to Petrochemicals; GA Purdy; 1957; Copp Clark.

In reading about future 'alternative fuels' to be used instead of petroleum for shipping ... e.g. biodiesel, hydrogen, ammonia*, methanol*, LNG*, etc ... I get the impression they all have some characteristic which makes them impractical outside of those ECAs which require low sulphur fuel. (*Currently used in Emission Control Areas.)

For example: fuels may be scarce and expensive; or, the smallest molecule which is always escaping and its supercooled liquid form damages the metal it interacts with; or, potentially extremely toxic to the crew if not handled with great care; or, not containing enough energy per unit and/or requiring more specialized handling than diesel oil. 

Exception: On ships designed to carry LNG ... the ship can be designed to use the 'boiled off' vapour exclusively as fuel.

As with the previously-presented locomotive fleet (and the automobile fleet) ... owners are unlikely to scrap a piece of equipment which has only been in service for 5 years. Tankers and containerships generally have a service life of 20-30 years. The main engine usually works for the whole lifespan of the hull. 

... So if a miracle like cheap solar-powered electric containerships suddenly descended down upon the earth, the ship owners would probably continue to use their old ships, burning their old fuels, until the end of their normal service lives.

*  *  *

Another interesting thing about modern ocean ships such as tankers and containerships ... 

We have all seen that they are 'welded together' in China or South Korea using cheap labour and/or very intensive automation. You should see some of the plate steel cutting/handling/welding automation videos! ...

However, these mass-produced ships are a 'global trade product'. Sure, the steel is made, the 'unfair subsidies' given, and the brute force assembly is done in Asia. However, the complete engines generally come from Europe. The electronic control systems may come from somewhere else, etc. 

*  *  *

A Ship Built in 2025

from: CGTN news website.

Recently completed in China, this Greek-owned tanker will carry 850-900,000 barrels of oil - depending on the oil's density. 

If you had about 115 of these ships loaded, it would represent the world's petroleum use on a single day.

The Seascout is powered by a MAN B&W 6G60ME-C Mk9.5 engine - a low-speed, six-cylinder, two-stroke marine diesel. It puts out approximately 22,850 horsepower or 17,040 kW. Its engine drives the propeller directly with no transmission between the engine and the prop. It generally operates at 60-85 RPM (range 20-95 RPM), travelling at about 14 knots. 

You may have noticed the 'MAN' (Maschinenfabrik Augsburg Nürnberg) which takes us right back to one of Rudolf Diesel's first engine builders. Just like General Electric, the name endures but the corporate structures have changed over the decades. I believe MAN is now owned by Volkswagen's parent. 

People may remember that during the first oil crisis, top highway speeds were reduced, to decrease the impact of the oil shortage ... because of the exponential resistance of air as a car's speed increases ...

The Danish shipping line Maersk first came up with the idea of 'slow steaming' and ran a trial involving 110 ships in 2007. Adjustments were required to the ship engines to avoid damaging them by running them at speeds for which they weren't designed. By dropping the speed from 24 knots to 14-18 knots they found they could reduce fuel consumption by 30% or more. 

Obviously, containerships in high demand and operating on a schedule will operate at higher speeds when necessary.

However, for bulk commodities, ship fuel economy is often more important for profitability than speed. This is particularly the case when petroleum is going to remain 'at sea' for a period of time. There, it waits for the shipowner or product consignor to determine that a given market will provide an advantageous price ... and the ship is then instructed to dock and make delivery.

* * *

He was born in a foreign country. He lived and worked in impoverishment during his first decade of life. He was subsequently deported to another foreign country. 

Rudolf Diesel hoped that poorer countries could fuel his simplest engines with whichever plant oils they had in abundance. He hoped people could derive the economic benefits of efficient, modern motor power. 

Diesel never could have imagined how his invention would dominate the world's transportation system over a century later.

'His work changed the face of the global economy.'

end

International Meridian Conference, 1884 - Indefatigable Sandford Fleming

Halifax, 1949

With the help of his CPR employee pass, LC Gagnon was travelling over the Canadian Pacific system - beginning in Montreal, through Maine and New Brunswick, and by CPR ferry to Nova Scotia ... with  additional travel on the CNR line along Nova Scotia's south shore (as seen elsewhere on this blog).

At the Halifax Citadel, he has composed a photo showing two time appliances. 

The noon gun will provide an audible signal for citizens within earshot. The time ball is more interesting. 

I believe LC Gagnon photographed two time balls in Halifax during this trip. Overlooking the harbour with a good line of sight, the ball pictured seems to be an official device. There was another time ball farther down the hill as well. Watchmakers often prided themselves as being masters of time and they maintained their own standard clocks ... and time balls in some cases. Exact time was provided as part of their professional mission. Before 'Standard Time', US railroads would sometimes designate a particular local watchmaker's time for official use.

Generally, the time balls descended slowly for a minute or less as the hour approached, with the end of the descent marking noon (or perhaps 13hr - after daily noon re-verification). Time balls were essential to shipping. Their signal was not subject to delay - compared to the non-instantaneous speed of the gun's sound. Using a telescope, a distant ship could check its chronometer with precision by watching a time ball.

... I believe the Admiralty maintained a series of time balls along the British coast to support civilian and Royal Navy ships. 

*  *  *

During, and at the conclusion of, the decisive International Meridian Conference at Washington DC in 1884, Sandford Fleming's biographers of 1915 and 2000 do not think he was properly recognized for his work to promote and support the adoption of a new system of time reckoning for the world. 

Lawrence Burpee (Sandford Fleming, Empire Builder; 1915; Oxford Press archive.org) ended his Standard Time Movement chapter with the words of the Astronomer Royal of Russia, M Otto Struve: 

'It is through Mr Fleming's indefatigable personal labours and writings that influential individuals and Scientific Societies and Institutes in America and Europe have been won over to the cause.' 

Looking over all of the microfilmed documents of Sandford Fleming preserved by the Canadian government (available at archive.org), I discovered that the official account of the Washington Conference is missing - although the official account translated into French is available. 

... Fleming's biographer of 2000 states that the US State Department was unable to find a French translator in Washington DC to satisfy the request of the delegation from France - it was Fleming who did. 

Fortunately, Project Gutenberg has preserved and uploaded the official record in English and you can read the whole thing at this link:

International Conference Held at Washington for the Purpose of Fixing a Prime Meridian and a Universal Day. October, 1884.

*  *  *

A recap of Fleming's evolution of thought ...

If you've been following this series, you'll recall that Fleming was miffed because he was stuck at Bundoran, Ireland overnight because of a timetable misprint. His 5PM train was actually scheduled for 5AM the next morning.

In addition to advocating the use of a 24-hour clock, his first approach to the larger issue of world time reckoning was Utopian. He wanted to convert the 'hour numbers' (i.e. 1 to 12) on a clock to letters. This idea would require the engineering of a new clock device which took 24 hours for its hour hand to complete its trip around the watch face. The 24-hour cycle matched that of the earth. Essentially, the new timepiece was a schematic representation of world time zones, designated by their own letters.

Below, the whole world is shown at 'A' o'clock because the sun is over the 'A time zone' in eastern Russia. For those Russians, 'A hour' is always noon. For those in the N time zone in western Africa 'A' o'clock is always midnight. 

This seems odd, because we know how all this turned out ... but consider the global circumstances in the mid-1800s ...

... At that stage of history, a few smaller countries used nation-wide standard times because of railway or military imperatives. 

For example, in the UK, the railways all agreed to use Greenwich time - from the Royal Observatory - as the basis for all their schedules. After this change, people with the money to travel by rail set their watches to 'railway time'. The rest of society - if they had the money to buy their own personal watches or clocks - gradually followed suit.

... However, most places in the world using clocks set them by the sun at noon. There were no time zones - just local 'natural' time.

After the Washington International Meridian Conference of 1884 was over, Fleming put together a 110-page compendium of all of his time ideas, the responses to them, and their refinement ... for posterity. It is linked below if you want to see what he wanted us to remember about his persistent efforts. (It is the source of these 5 excerpts.)

archive.org link:

Universal or cosmic time: by Sandford Fleming, 

together with other papers, communications and reports

In the late 1870s ... Fleming 'worked through channels' in Canada, employing the Governor General (Queen Victoria's son-in-law) to help get the world thinking about time reckoning ... i.e. 'standard time and time zones'. 

As we've seen, experts like the UK Astronomer Royal - George Biddell Airy (at Greenwich) - were sometimes brusque when returning requested feedback. When appropriate, Fleming would modify his ideas. He'd continue to be patient and persistent in promoting them. 

Supportive colleagues like American meteorologist Cleveland Abbe, who was necessarily interested in the science of measuring (Metrology), were natural allies of Fleming. As he built his network, Fleming presented his papers in the US and in Europe.

 

The advent of the world-wide telegraph system (before the invention of wireless) enabled information and time signals to be sent anywhere at the speed of light.

Having a universal standard time system and clearly-defined time zones would enable meteorologists like Cleveland Abbe to know exactly when a tornado had struck a particular settlement. Appropriate records could be made and warnings could be sent out by telegraph to other places which might soon be affected.

October 1884, the International Meridian Conference

The Americans take the bull by the horns ...

The first order of business was to elect a Chairman of the Conference ...

The delegates elected the chairman of the delegation of the United States of America, Admiral C. R. P. Rodgers. Almost all of his first brief address is reproduced here, taken from the Project Gutenberg document, linked above. It was concise and to the point.

'Gentlemen: I beg you to receive my thanks for the high honor you have conferred upon me in calling me, as the chairman of the delegation from the United States, to preside at this Congress. To it have come from widely-separated portions of the globe, delegates renowned in diplomacy and science, seeking to create a new accord among the nations by agreeing upon a meridian proper to be employed as a common zero of longitude and standard of time reckoning throughout the world. Happy shall we be, if, throwing aside national preferences and inclinations, we seek only the common good of mankind, and gain for science and for commerce a prime meridian acceptable to all countries, and secured with the least possible inconvenience.

'Having this object at heart, the Government of the United States has invited all nations with which it has diplomatic relations to send delegates to a Congress to assemble at Washington to-day, to discuss the question I have indicated. The invitation has been graciously received, and we are here this morning to enter upon the agreeable duty assigned to us by our respective governments.

'Broad as is the area of the United States, covering a hundred degrees of longitude, extending from 66° 52' west from Greenwich to 166° 13' at our extreme limit in Alaska, not including the Aleutian Islands; traversed, as it is, by railway and telegraph lines, and dotted with observatories; long as is its sea coast, of more than twelve thousand miles; vast as must be its foreign and domestic commerce, its delegation to this Congress has no desire to urge that a prime meridian shall be found within its confines.

'In my own profession, that of a seaman, the embarrassment arising from the many prime meridians now in use is very conspicuous, and in the valuable interchange of longitudes by passing ships at sea, often difficult and hurried, sometimes only possible by figures written on a black-board, much confusion arises, and at times grave danger. In the use of charts, too, this trouble is also annoying, and to us who live upon the sea a common prime meridian will be a great advantage.'

As you'll see on Fleming's summary of the Conference, below, the delegations took over a month to conduct their 8 sitting days. There were breaks to allow for questions to be discussed with delegates' home governments and for data to be gathered and prepared for presentation. 

One key consideration was the use of the Greenwich Observatory/Meridian as longitude 'zero' and time 'zero' for the civil day of the world. As mentioned, Greenwich charts were widely used. Other nations had similar observatories providing the basis for their own charts. To choose Greenwich meant that these other observatories would not retain their national importance and tradition.

As a secret supporter of the Greenwich Meridian, Fleming wanted to avoid provoking other nations' anger by implying that their meridians were inferior in some way. To avoid this, right from the beginning of his work, he suggested his Proposed Common Prime Meridian in the middle of the Pacific Ocean ... as seen in the world diagram at the top of this post. 

At one point when the French delegates felt the relevance of the Paris Meridian was being lost, a vote was called on Fleming's anti-Prime Meridian and it was soundly defeated. So much for trying to be considerate ...

However, Fleming made the presentation below to show that the Greenwich Meridian did have the greatest use - as measured by tonnage and the absolute number of ships using the Greenwich charts. 

... Nonetheless, he points out, below, that his 'anti-Greenwich' meridian would avoid choosing the meridian of any particular nation. This is because the telegraph wires can provide the instantaneous propagation of an official time signal (from any observatory location to be chosen) to the entire world. 

The key holdouts in accepting the Greenwich Meridian - the French delegation - would abstain from voting in the end. Two people attended for France ... the world's leading spectroscopist ...  i.e. someone who breaks down the spectrum of a star's light to determine the elements of its composition ... and the French Ambassador to the United States. Astronomers are generally not called upon to fight in debates involving international diplomacy. 

Below is Sandford Fleming's concise report of what exactly was achieved at the International Meridian Conference at Washington DC in October 1884.

Any Canadian delegate, in the international sphere, would be regarded as coming from the British Empire at this point in history. In spite of all of his spadework to make a world time reckoning system reality, Fleming was forced to tag along with Britain. However, he was neither a military person, nor an academic, nor the member of a government, nor a diplomat. The British delegates tolerated his presence as kind of an oddity. There was no doubt that they would be campaigning to ensure the Greenwich Meridian was used.

The well-prepared naval astronomers generally had instructions from their governments to ensure the Greenwich Meridian was chosen as the Prime Meridian with the civil day beginning at midnight at that location. 

In the United States, William Frederick Allen (1846-1915), a civil engineer by training and the secretary of the General Time Convention of the American Railroad Association is generally cited as the inventor of standard time and [American] time zones. He had presented his system on 8 April 1883 at the ARA semi-annual meeting in St Louis. (As we've discussed, Fleming was pushing his papers back in the 1870s.)

Here is WF Allen on the cover of the December 1887 edition of the Official Guide. This old, brittle document prefers to be photographed. 

Allen attended the Washington Conference and the main thrust of his presentation was to affirm that the US railroad system was based on the Greenwich Meridian. The railroads had adopted his time zones in 1883. (Canadian railways had adopted the continental railroad standard at exactly the same time as the US railroads.) The railway time zones were optimized for railway operations. 

... If international time zones - separated by exactly 15 degrees - were overlaid on the railroad time zones, there was great potential for confusion. Official 'local time' should not be different from 'railroad time'.

If you haven't seen the ARA's original railroad time zone scheme, it is in a previous post, linked below.

Time Zones for Railways in North America

In the end, the international time zone system was implemented loosely, with local patterns of human activity considered. Over time, Allen's system was modified to better meet the needs of citizens. Everybody survived the experience.

*  *  *

What did Fleming get?

Fleming's Utopian 'lettered hour of the day' 24-hour-circle watch scheme fell by the wayside early in his work on this project. 

Today, UTC does provide a form of his Cosmopolitan or Cosmic Time for scientific, military, and general international use. 

However, if you turn on your TV or computer, you'll notice that much of humankind never did get around to learning how to tell the time using a 24-hour clock ... and no longer using AM or PM. This was seemingly the original frustrating issue which got Fleming thinking about time in the first place!

*  *  *

Where they 'make'  the Greenwich Meridian ...

Here is the specific wording from Resolution 2 of the International Meridian Conference, 1884.

" the meridian passing through the centre of the transit instrument at the Observatory of Greenwich "

Here are two images which enable you to see this exact location, back around the time of Sandford Fleming and the Washington Conference.

from: Greenwich Observatory (article); 1872; Popular Science Review. archive.org

The image above shows and describes part of the process used around the time that Fleming began his work with standard time.

*  *  *

After Sandford Fleming was knighted by Queen Victoria in 1897, here is the building housing the transit.

The camera is sitting right on the Prime Meridian. 

The Royal Observatory Greenwich; E Walter Maunder; 1900; Religious Tract Society. archive.org

*  *  *

The system is available for use ...

The series of time zones, with Greenwich as the Prime Meridian, is presented in this British atlas from 1904. 

from: Handy Reference Atlas of the World; JG Bartholomew; 1904; John Walker & Co.

end